Quick Table of Contents
1. Starting Systems
2. Process and its Characterization
3. Products
4. SHS Research
5. Fundamentals of SHS
6. SHS Production Methods
7. Applications
8. History and State-of-Art
9. Useful References (reviews and monographs)
10. Glossary
11. Information Brochure about SHS (26.2Mb)
Full Table of Contents
1. Starting Systems
1.1. Starting Reagents and their Morphology
1.2. Chemical Classes of Reagents
2. Process and its Characterization
2.1. Combustion in SHS processes (also termed solid flame or solid-flame combustion)
2.2. Initiation
2.3. Modes of Front Propagation
2.4. Combustion Thermograms
2.5. Front, Wave, and Post-Processes
2.6. Process Parameters
2.7. Chemical Classes of SHS Reactions
3. Products
3.1. Morphology and Macroscopic Structure
3.2. Product Composition
3.3. Microstructure of Products
3.4. Chemical Classes of Products
4. SHS Research
4.1. Three levels of experimental diagnostics
4.1.1.Level I: Phenomenology
4.1.2.Level II: Zone structure of the combustion wave
4.1.3.Level III: Mechanism and dynamics of phase/structure transformations behind the combustion front
4.2. Means of Control
5. Fundamentals of SHS
5.1. Thermodynamics
5.2. Chemical Kinetics
5.3. Combustion Theory
5.4. Chemistry and Structural Macrokinetics
5.5. Physical Materials Science
6. SHS Production Methods
6.1 Technological Types of SHS
7. Applications
7.1. SHS Products
7.2. SHS-Based Production
7.3. Effectiveness
8. History and State-of-Art
8.1. Discovery
8.2. SHS in the Former Soviet Union
8.3. SHS in the CIS countries
8.4. SHS all over the world
8.5. Most Important Accomplishments
8.6. Some Important Directions of Research
8.7. Symposia, Workshops, Seminars
9. Useful References (reviews and monographs)
10. Glossary
10.1. General Aspects of Combustion
10.2. Processes
11. Information Brochure about SHS (26.2Mb)
1. Starting Systems
1.1. Starting Reagents and their Morphology
SHS can be performed in fine powders, thin films, liquids, and gases. The most popular are
- powder mixtures (loose or pelleted)
- powder (pellet) – gas systems
SHS can also be carried out in the
- powder–liquid systems
- gas suspensions
- layered systems
- gas-gas systems
Starting sample morphology must favor chemical reaction.
Green mixture may burn in
- vacuum
- open air
- inert or reactive gas.
1.2. Chemical Classes of Reagents
The elements, individual compounds, and their mixtures that are reactive at high temperatures can be used as reagents while inert compounds, as fillers or diluents.
The most popular reactants are given below:
H2, B, Al, C, N2, O2, Mg, Ti, Nb, Mo, Si, Ni, Fe, B2O3, TiO2, Cr2O3, MoO3, Fe2O3, NiO, etc.
Mineral raw materials and industrial waste can also be used as starting reagents.
SHS reagents must comply with the following requirements:
- reaction must be exothermic
- reaction must yield useful solid products
- process must be technically and cost-effective
2. Process and its Characterization
2.1. Combustion in SHS processes (also termed solid flame or solid–flame combustion)
For SHS systems, the most popular are the following modes of combustion:
2.2. Initiation
Reaction is normally initiated from the sample surface with a heat flux (heated wire, electric spark, laser beam, etc.). After initiation, reaction proceeds in the mode of self-propagation. The duration of heating is markedly shorter than the time of reaction (combustion).
In some cases (e.g., low-caloric reactions), reaction may be initiated by bulk heating in a furnace and carried out in the mode of
thermal explosion .
2.3. Modes of Combustion Front Propagation
In the simplest and most important case of
steady propagation
(photoregistrogram of the steady combustion ), all of the wave points move at a constant and identical velocity. When the steadiness is upset, the system may undergo
- planar autooscillations in the front velocity
(pulsating combustion
)
- localization of reaction in one or several hot spots that move along the spiral trajectory
(spinning waves
)
- chaotic motion of numerous hot spots (chaotic solid flames)
In case of strong heat losses (small sample diameter, low adiabatic temperature), wave propagation is not sustained altogether.
2.4. Combustion Thermograms
Combustion thermogram gives evolution of temperature at a given point of charge during SHS. A
simplest thermogram has an irregular-bell shape. More complicated thermograms exhibit breakpoints, inflexions, and isothermic plateaus. In case of unsteady combustion, thermograms may exhibit temperature oscillations within an ascending portion of the curve.
2.5. Front, Wave, and Post-Processes
Besides heat release, chemical reaction in the combustion wave gives rise to a number of physicochemical processes. The combustion wave is extended and comprised of several zones:
- heat-affected, or preflame, zone (also zone of heating)
- reaction zone
- zone of after-burning
- zone of secondary (or post-) processes (cooling and structure formation in reaction products)
The combustion wave is a propagating zone of chemical reactions. The front is some imaginary surface that separates the heat-affected and reaction zones. Propagation of the combustion wave is the first stage of SHS. The secondary physicochemical transformations make the second stage of SHS.
SHS = combustion + structure formation
2.6. Process Parameters
The process of wave propagation is characterized by:
Typical parameters of SHS
Burning velocity | 0.1–20 cm/s |
Combustion temperature | 2300–3800 K |
Heating rate | 103–106 K/s |
Igniting fluence | 10–200 cal/(cm2 s) |
Induction time for ignition | 0.2–1.2 s |
Ignition temperature | 800–1200 K |
In view of this, SHS can be regarded as an extreme chemical process.
2.7. Chemical Classes of SHS Reactions
For SHS processes, the type of starting reagents is insignificant. Much more important is relation between the heat release in reaction, on one side, and such parameters as the mode of heat release/transfer, state of aggregation for reactants/products, kinetics of phase/structure transformations, etc., on the other.
Therefore, the chemistry of SHS is versatile. The most important examples are given below.
- Synthesis from the elements
Ti + C = TiC
Ni + Al = NiAl
3Si + 2N2 = Si3N4
Zr + H2 = ZrH2
- Redox reactions
B2O3 +3Mg + N2 = 2BN + 3MgO
B2O3 + TiO2 +5Mg = TiB2 + 5MgO
MoO3 + B2O3 +4Al = MoB2 + 2Al2O3
3TiO2 + C + 4Al = TiC + 2Al2O3
2TiCl4 + 8Na + N2 = 2TiN + 8NaCl
- Oxidation of metals with complex oxides
3Cu + 2BaO2 + 1/2Y2O3 + 0.5(1.5 - x)O2 = YBa2Cu3O7-x
Nb + Li2O2 + 1/2Ni2O5 = 2LiNbO3
8Fe + SrO + 2Fe2O3 + 6O2 = SrFe12O19
- Synthesis from compounds
PbO + WO3 = PbWO4
- Reaction of the elements with decomposition products
2TiH2 + N2 = 2TiN + 2H2
4Al + NaN3 + NH4Cl = 4AlN + NaCl + 2H2
- Thermal decomposition
2BH3N2H4 = 2BN + N2 + 7H2
3. Products
3.1. Morphology and Macroscopic Structure
Solid SHS products may appear in the form of powders, particle conglomerates,
foams , cakes, ingots, films, whiskers,
fibers , and crystals. The batch weight depends on charging and the type of process.
In case of premixed green mixtures, the macrostructure of product is normally uniform. For the solid–gas systems, the product composition may be expected to vary over the sample cross section.
In some cases, the product macrostructure is intentionally made nonuniform, e.g., multilayer and
functionally graded materials .
3.2. Product Composition
The chemical and phase composition of combustion product depends on green composition, extent of conversion, and cooling conditions.
Product contamination depends not only on the purity of starting reagents but also on the extent of self-purification during combustion. Products synthesized under optimized conditions exhibit low content of unreacted components and contaminants.
3.3. Microstructure of Products
SHS products normally have a polycrystalline structure with a grain size of 1–5 mm. SHS may also yield nanophase, amorphous or coarse-grained products. The grain size depends on the cooling rate and kinetics of crystallization and recrystllization.
The porosity of products ranges between zero (compact materials) and 90–95% (foam materials).
3.4. Chemical Classes of Products
SHS is known to yield the following classes of compounds:
- oxygen-free refractory compounds, oxides, intermetallides, chalcogenides, phosphides, hydrides, etc.
- reduced elements (B, Ti, Mo, etc.)
- inorganic composites (ceramics, cermets, mineraloceramics, composite materials, etc.)
- organic compounds (piperazine malonate, quinhydrone, ferrozerone (o-carboxybenzoylferrozene), etc.)
The photos of reacting samples:
- Protonation (piperazine/malonic acid)
- Halogenation (malonic acid/halogenating agent)
- Oxydation-halogenation (8-oxyqinoline/B-chloramine)
- polymers (prepared by frontal polymerization)
- Discovery of frontal polymerization
- Still frames of frontal polymerization
- Items obtained by frontal polymerization
4. SHS Research
4.1. Three levels of experimental diagnostics
Level I: Phenomenology
Detecting a wave propagation mode (steady, pulsating, spinning) and measuring the following readily measurable parameters:
- burning velocity and combustion temperature (for steady combustion)
- mean burning velocity and pulsation frequency (for unsteady combustion)
- mean burning velocity and hot spot velocity (for spinning combustion)
- chemical and phase composition of end products.
Experimental techniques: motions pictures and video recording, thermometry, pyrometry, chemical analysis, XRD, metallography.
Level II: Zone structure of the combustion wave
Experimental techniques: thermography and time-resolved pyrometry. The obtained
temperature profiles shed light on the mechanism of physicochemical transformations in and structure of the combustion wave.
Level III: Mechanism and dynamics of phase/structure transformations behind the combustion front
Experimental techniques:
- time-resolved x-ray diffraction .
Example: time-resolved x-ray diffraction patterns for the Ni-Al system ;
- quenching (arresting) the wave propagation.
4.2. Means of Control
Task objective:
controlling
- burning velocity, combustion temperature, and extent of conversion
- composition, structure, and properties of SHS products
Modes of control:
- green parameters (charge composition, particle size, density, charge volume, initial temperature, type and amount of additives and fillers, etc.)
- combustion conditions (composition and pressure of ambient gases, external influences)
5. Fundamentals of SHS
SHS is a science-intensive process. Its comprehension requires erudition in thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, general and structural macrokinetics, materials science, and other allied fields of knowledge.
5.1. Thermodynamics
For SHS reactions, thermochemical calculations can be performed either in a concise form for determining only the adiabatic combustion temperature or in the full form for determining both the combustion temperature and product composition.
- Thermodynamics for liquid-flame combustion in "hot" systems of a thermite type
- Thermodynamic analysis for combustion in the Ta-C system
- Composition diagram for the TiO2-B2O3-Mg system
5.2. Chemical Kinetics
The kinetics of chemical reactions in SHS systems provides information about the rate of heat release at high temperatures. The latter is normally assessed from the dependence of the burning velocity on combustion temperature as well as from the thermograms of combustion or electrothermal explosion. For reactions of metal with gases, similar data can be assessed from electrothermographic measurements.
5.3. Combustion Theory
Wave propagation and wave structure are readily described in terms of the
combustion theory . The latter is based on joint analysis of the equations of heat conduction with nonlinear heat sources (heat release in chemical reaction) and chemical kinetics (ideal solid-flame combustion). Calculations may also take into account the processes of melting and capillary spreading (solid-flame combustion with a melting interlayer), infiltration of a gaseous reagent (infiltration combustion), various heat transfer processes (heterogeneous combustion), etc.
To date, infiltration combustion and have been theoretically analyzed in terms of not only the 1D but also
2D and 3D models
- 3D equations of gasless combustion
- 3D modeling: one-head spinning combustion (dynamics of temperature profile over the cylindrical surface)
- 3D modeling: two-head spinning combustion (dynamics of front structure) (related paper in PDF-format 347Kb )
Mathematical modeling of SHS was also performed with regard to the constitution diagram.
5.4. Chemistry and Structural Macrokinetics
Investigated is the mechanism of chemical, phase, and structure transformations in SHS reactions by using the experimental techniques specified in Sect. 4.1.3. The routes of chemical reactions have been classified, and the limiting mechanisms of structure formation have been suggested.
5.5. Physical Materials Science
The methods of classical materials science were applied to characterization of SHS products. The effect of cooling rate on equilibrium (nonequilibrium) in SHS products is being investigated. For off-stoichiometric products, the extent of ordering and formation of hyperstructures are being investigated by neutron diffraction.
6. SHS Production Methods
6.1 Technological Types of SHS
SHS production has much in common with: preprocessing of raw materials/synthesis/product processing. Instead of furnaces and plasmotrons, SHS is performed in reactors.
Six technological types (TTs) of SHS are known:
Worth mentioning is also in-line SHS production.
7. Applications
7.1. SHS Products
SHS products find their
application in mechanical engineering, metallurgy, chemical industry, electrical and electronic engineering, aerospace industry, building industry, etc. SHS products are also used in medicine
- SHS materials with shape memory for use in surgery ,
- SHS implants ,
scientific instruments, space experiments
- First microgravity SHS experiment (related paper (in russian) ,
this document in MS Word97 format, zip-compressed, 40Kb ),
- Formation of the combustion product in the NiO–Ni–Al system (related paper in PDF-format 489Kb ),
- "Contactless" SHS in space (related paper in PDF-format 467Kb ),
- Gasless SHS in Particle Clouds under Microgravity:
Experiments Aboard the MIR Space Station,
etc.
7.2. SHS-Based Production
In the former Soviet Union , SHS was implemented for production of high-temperature heaters (Kirovakan), TiC powders and appropriate abrasive pastes (Baku, Poltava), nitrided ferroalloys (Izhevsk, Chusovaya), silicon nitride (b-phase) and titanium hydride powders (Makeevka; Transcarpathia), high-temperature insulators (Kuibyshev), lithium niobate (Dzerzhinsk), etc.
In Russia, there exist pilot-scale SHS production lines at ISMAN (Chernogolovka, Moscow), at MISIS–ISMAN Research and Educational Center (Moscow), and at SHS Engineering Center (Samara).
In China, SHS is used to manufacture
ceramic-lined steel pipes for transportation of ores and coal.
In Japan and the USA, SHS products are reportedly being produced by some companies.
In Spain,
a plant for manufacturing silicon nitride (a-phase) and boron nitride powders is operating.
7.3. Effectiveness
The cost-effectiveness of SHS is normally associated with (1) utilization of reaction heat instead of electric power, (2) high combustion temperature and burning velocity, (3) simplicity of facilities, and (4) high quality of products
- Sintering kinetics for Si3N4 powders ,
- Heat-conducting AlN items .
SHS is often a material-saving process. It can also be used for net-shape production of finished machine parts. A drawback is a limited range of inexpensive and accessible reagents that react with a sufficient heat release.
8. History and State-of-Art
8.1. Discovery
SHS naturally flew out of the discovery of the solid flame phenomenon. This discovery (officially named as
"The Phenomenon of the Wave Localization of Solid-State Autoretarding Reactions" ) was made (in 1967) by A.G. Merzhanov, I.P. Borovinskaya, and V.M. Shkiro at the Research Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Township of Chernogolovka, 30 miles north-east of Moscow).
The very first paper on self-propagating high-temperature synthesis can be seen
here
( This document in MS Word97 format, zip-compressed, 16.1Kb ).
The discovery was made during a search for a model of the so-called gasless combustion (iron–aluminum thermite with alumina added as ballast). Another line of this research was synthesis of copper and silver acetylenides that could be expected to burn with no gas evolution.
In the author's opinion, the precursors of SHS are the Beketov–Goldschmidt out-of-furnace metallothermy and the Semenov–Zel'dovich combustion theory.
8.2. SHS in the Former Soviet Union
1967–1979 |
Unsupported research in Chernogolovka and then in Tomsk, Yerevan, Kiev, etc.
Basic results: fundamentals, methodology, and ideology of SHS research
|
1979–1992 |
State-supported research and development
Basic results:
- New buildings in Chernogolovka;
- Advisory Board on the Theory and Practice of SHS at the State Committee on Science and Technology;
- State-Governed Program on SHS R&D;
- Interdisciplinary Consortium TERMOSINTEZ affiliated at ISMAN
|
8.3. SHS in the CIS countries
After collapse of the Soviet Union and economical reforms, the following SHS centers has remained active (in the CIS countries):
- Institiute of Structural Macrokinetics and Materials Science (ISMAN), Chernogolovka, Russia
- Tomsk Scientific Center, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Tomsk, Russia
- Scientific-Educational SHS-Center of Moscow Steel and Alloys Institute (Technological University) and Institiute of Structural Macrokinetics and Materials Science, Moscow, Russia
- SHS Engineering Centre, Technological University, Samara, Russia
- Institute of Chemical Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Armenia
- Combustion Problems Institute, Almaty, Kazakstan
- Institute for Metals Superplasticity Problems, Ufa, Russia
- Research Institute for Powder Metallurgy, Minsk, Belarus
- Heat and Mass Transfer Institute (HMTI), Minsk, Belarus
- The Institute for Problem of Materials Science, Kiev, Ukraine
- Institute of Technical Acoustics, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Vitebsk, Belarus
- Institute of Metallurgy, National Academy of Sciences of Georgia, Georgia
8.4. SHS all over the World
1982 Initiation of SHS studies at the US Army Research Center and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Impetus:
Crider J.F., Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis: a Soviet method for producing ceramic materials , Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc., 1982, vol. 3, nos. 9-10, pp. 519-528.
Initiation of SHS studies in Japan in the beginning of the 80s.
Since the 80s: "Self-propagation" of SHS R&D in Poland, Korea, China, Italy, Spain, France, India, etc. The highest place of advance is achieved in China.
To date, SHS publications have been submitted by researchers from 47 countries all over the world.
Most active in the field are the following institutions:
- Joining and Welding Research Institute Osaka University, Japan
- High-tech Research Center and Department of Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Ryukoku University, Japan
- The Center for Commercial Application of Combustion in Space, Colorado Schools of Mines, Golden CO, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science Associate Dean, College of Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis CA, USA
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, USA
- Department of Engineering Science & Applied Mathematics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- Department of Chemistry/ Chemical Engineering South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, USA
- University of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, University of Cagliari, Piazza d'Armi, Italy
- Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Sunmoon University, Korea
- SHS CERAMICAS, Spain
The worldwide spread of SHS research was prompted by regular (since 1991) International Symposia on SHS and publication (since 1992) of Int. J. SHS by Allerton Press, New York.
8.5. Most Important Accomplishments
- Original experimental techniques
- Investigation of combustion in the solid–solid, solid–gas, and solid–solid–gas systems
- Theory of solid–flame combustion (gasless, infiltration, etc.)
- Fundamentals of thermal theory for unsteady combustion (autooscillations, spinning waves, etc.)
- Ideology and methodology of structural macrokinetics
- Thermodynamic database for SHS processes, , the "Thermo" program for calculations of thermodynamic equilibrium in complex multi-element heterophase systems and ATC - Adiabatic Temperature Calculator (Alexandr Shchukin, PhD, software developer)
- Synthesis of numerous compounds and high-quality materials
- New production methods for chemicals, powders, materials, and items; SHS welding and deposition of coatings
- Applications of SHS products in technology and engineering
8.6. Some Important Directions of Research
- Phase and structure transformations during SHS
- Theory of multidimensional SHS modes
- Mathematical modeling and optimization of concrete SHS processes
- Synthesis of specialty powders (composite, nanophase, etc.)
- Preparation and utilization of nonequilibrium materials
- Mechanochemistry of SHS under the conditions of quasi-static and dynamic (shock) loading
- In-line production methods (with utilization of evolved heat)
- Net-shape production of machine parts with required service parameters
- SHS production methods based on the gas–gas and gas–suspension systems
- SHS in organic and elementorganic systems
8.7. Symposia-Workshops-Seminars
All-Union SHS Workshops and Seminars
- June 5–12, 1975, Arzakan
- October 11–20, 1977, Arzakan
- September 19–28, 1979, Kirovokan
- October 26 – November 3, 1983, Dilizhan
- September 10–19, 1985, Agavnadzor
- June 21–30, 1988, Chernogolovka
- June 11–18, 1991, Makhachkala
Topical sessions of the Scientific Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences on the
Theory and Practice of Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis
- SHS processes for producing abrasive tools/May 14–16, 1980, Zaporozh'e
- SHS materials science/October 13–15, 1980, Tashkent
- Chemistry and technology of SHS powders/May 30 – June 2, 1981, Baku
- SHS as a method for producing instrumental materials/September 28 – October 2, 1981, Borzhomy
- Combustion in SHS mode/June 22–25, 1982, Odessa
- Application of SHS products and processes in mashin-building/June 28–30, 1983, Kuybyshev
- SHS metallurgy/May 29–31, 1984, Kutaisy
- Raw materials for SHS/October 4–6, 1988, Alma-Ata
- Design of equipment for SHS/April 19–20, 1989, Dnepropetrovsk
International Symposia on Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis
- September 23–28, 1991, Alma-Ata, USSR
- November 7–10, 1993, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
- October 23–27, 1995, Wuhan, China
- October 6–7, 1997, Toledo, Spain
- August 16–19, 1999, Moscow, Russia
- October 14–18 2001, Haifa, Israel
9. Useful References (reviews and monographs)
 |
Alexander G. Merzhanov. Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis: Twenty Years of Search and Findings. Chernogolovka: ISMAN, 1989, 91 pp. |
 |
SHS-Bibliography (1967–1995). Int. Journal of SHS, vol. 5, N 4, 1996, 513 pp. |
 |
Chemistry of Combustion Synthesis. Ed. M. Koizumi. Moscow: Mir Publ., 1998, 247 pp. (Russian translation). |
 |
Combustion Synthesis. Ed. Yin Sheng, Beijing, 1998, 444 pp., (in Chinese). |
 |
E.A. Levashov, A.S. Rogachev, V.I. Yukhvid, I.P. Borovinskaya. Physico-Chemical and Technological Foundations of Self-Propagation High-Temperature Synthesis. Moscow: Binom, 1999, 176 pp., (in Russian). |
 |
A.G. Merzhanov. Combustion Processes and Materials Synthesis. Chernogolovka: ISMAN, 1998, 512 pp., (in Russian). |
 |
Carbide, Nitride and Boride Materials Synthesis and Processing. Ed. Alan W.Weimer, London–Weinheim–New York–Tokyo–Melburne–Madras: Chapman & Hall, 1997, 671 pp. |
 |
Sharivker, S.Yu. and Merzhanov, A.G. SHS-Produced Powders and Their Processing, Borovinskaya, I.P., Ed., Chernogolovka: Izd. ISMAN, 2000, 123 pp., 21 tables, 30 figs., 273 refs. |
 |
Merzhanov, A.G. Solid Flame Combustion (in Russian) Chernogolovka: Izd. ISMAN, 2000, pp. 224, 27 tables, 116 figs., 409 refs book announcement |
 |
Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis: Theory and Practice (in Russian). Ed. A.E.Sytschev, Chernogolovka, Territory, 2001, pp.432.book announcement |
 |
Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis of Materials, Edited by Anatoli A. Borisov, Luigi De Luca, and Alex Merzhanov Translated by Yury B. Scheck book announcement |
 |
Êîíöåïöèÿ ðàçâèòèÿ càìîðàñïðîñòðàíÿþùåãîñÿ âûñîêîòåìïåðàòóðíîãî ñèíòåçà êàê îáëàñòè íàó÷íî-òåõíè÷åñêîãî ïðîãðåññà, Ed. A.G.Merzhanov, Chernogolovka, Territory, 2003, pp.368. Adobe Acrobat document (7.7Mb) |
 |
Corbin, N.D., and McCauley, J.W., Self-Propagating High Temperature Synthesis (SHS): Current Status and Future Prospects, MTL MS 86-1, Watertown, MA, May 1986 |
 |
Frankhouser, W.L., Brendley, K.W., Kieszek, M.C., and Sullivan, S.T., Gasless Combustion Synthesis of Refractory Compounds, Noyes Publications, 1985 |
 |
Combustion and Plasma Synthesis of High Temperature Materials, Munir, Z.A., and Holt, J.B., Eds., VCH Publishers, 1990 |
 |
A.G. Merzhanov, A.S. Mukasyan, Tverdoplamennoe gorenie (Solid-Flame Combustion), Moscow: Torus Press, 2007, 336 pp. |
Other reviews
|